This article is about the insect family. For other uses, see Swallowtail.
Butterflies of the family Papilionidae
| Swallowtail butterfly | |
| Some species of Papilionidae | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Type: | Arthropods |
| Class: | Insect |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Superfamily: | Papilionoidea |
| Family: | Papilionidae Latreille, [1802] |
| Type genus | |
| Papilio Linnaeus, 1758 | |
| Subfamilies and genera | |
There are 31 genera and about 600 species:
| |
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Swallowtail butterfly
Swallowtail butterflies
large, colorful butterflies in the family
Papilionidae
, and includes more than 550 species.
Although most are tropical, members of the family inhabit every continent except Antarctica. The family includes the largest butterflies in the world, the winged butterflies of the genus Ornithoptera
.[1]
Swallowtail has a number of distinctive features; for example, the papilionid caterpillar bears a disgusting organ called the osmeterium on its prothorax. The osmeterium usually remains hidden, but when threatened, the larva unfolds it outward through the transverse dorsal groove, filling it with fluid.[2]
The forked appearance on some of the hind wings of swallowtails, which can be seen when the butterfly is resting with its wings outstretched, gives rise to the common name swallowtail
.
As for its official name, Linnaeus chose Papilio
for the type genus, since
papilio
is Latin for "butterfly".
For specific epithets of the genus, Linnaeus applied the names of Greek figures to the swallowtail. The type species is: Papilio Machaon
emeritus Machaon, one of the sons of Asclepius mentioned in
the Iliad
.[3] The further species
Papilio homerus
is named after the Greek poet, Homer.[4]
Content
- 1 Taxonomy 1.1 Subfamilies 1.1.1 Baroniinae
- 1.1.2 Parnasiens
- 1.1.3 Papilioninae
- 1.1.4 Praepapilioninae
- 7.1 Biological basis of polymorphism in mimicry
Taxonomy
Subfamilies
The genera of modern sailboats are usually divided into three. subfamilies, Baroniinae, Parnassianae, and Papilioninae, the latter two being divided into tribes. In swallowtails, in addition to morphological characteristics, the choice of food plants and ecological lifestyle reflect phylogeny and classification.
Baroniinae
Baronia is a monotypic subfamily limited to a very small region in Mexico and is considered the most basal of the subfamilies. Baronia brevicornis
considered a relict species and sharing features with the fossil taxon
Praepapilio
.
Baronia
is unique among the Papilionidae in that it has
the Acacia
species (Faceae family) as a food plant.[5]
Subfamily: Baroniinae
.
- Barony with short horns (Baronia brevicornis
)
Parnassiyna
Parnassiinae is a subfamily of essentially Holarctic butterflies. The vast majority of species, mainly Parnassus
, can be found in mountainous habitats.
Parnassiinines can also be found in other habitats such as "arid deserts ( Hypermnestra
), wet forests (
Luehdorfia
) and even lowland grasslands (
Zerinthia
)".[6] The tribes recognized in Parnassia are the Parnassiini, Zerinthiini, and Luehdorfiini.
The tribe Parnassiini consists of two genera, Hypermnestra
, mainly restricted to Central Asia and the genus
Parnassus
(Apollos), a distinct group of many species, all of which are alpine and capable of living at high altitudes.
Most Parnassus
has two small reddish spots on the hind wings.
The tribe Luehdorfiini contains the genera Archon
from Asia Minor and the genus
Luehdorfia
of China and Japan.
These two tribes evolved to modify their food plants, while the third tribe, the Zerynthiini, retained the archetypal Papilionid food plant, the lowland vine. Aristolochia
.
Zerynthiini includes four genera - Sericin
,
Butanite
,
Zerinthia
and
Allankastria
.[5]:13[7]
Subfamily: Parnasiana
.
- Mount Apollo (Parnassius Apollo
), Parnasiini tribe
- False Apollo (Archon Apolline
), tribe Luehdorfiini
- Southern festoon (Zerinthia polyxena
), tribe Zerynthiini
- Bhutan glory (Lidderdalium butanite
), tribe Zerynthiini
Papilioninae
The tribes recognized in the Papilioninae are the Leptocircini, Teinopalpini, Troidini, and Papilionini.
Subfamily: Papilioninae
.
- Zebra swallowtail (Eurytid marcellus
) tribe Leptocircini
- Kaiser-i-hind (Teinopalpus imperialis
) Teinopalpini tribe
- Palawan bird wing (Trogonoptera trojana
) tribe Troidini
- Spice machaon (Papilio troilus
) Papilionini tribe
- Great Mormon (Papilio memnon
) Papilionini tribe
- Cairns bird's wing (Ornithoptera euphoria
) (G.R. Gray 1852)
- Western tiger swallowtail (Papilio rutulus
) Papilionini tribe
Praepapillioninae
Additional subfamily, Praepapilioninae, consisting of one genus Praepapilio
, includes two species of extinct butterflies, each described from a single fossil found in Middle Eocene deposits in Colorado, USA (Durden and Rose, 1978).[8]
Podalirium
The swallowtail butterfly is large in size, reaching a length of forty millimeters, and a wingspan of all seventy. The wings are painted a soft cream color, crossed out by a number of wedge-shaped stripes, and the tips of the hind wings are decorated with long tails. The pattern on the upper and lower sides of the wings is relatively the same, the flight is quite fast, provided that the butterfly makes graceful, smooth strokes.
Podalirium lives not only in warm, but also in hot regions of Asia and Europe. It is found in fairly open areas, in forests with sufficient light, as well as in gardens. Among the butterflies fluttering over the hills, most are males. The caterpillars live and feed on hawthorn and thorns, they love plums and other fruit trees, their growth rate is very fast, only a month passes, and the future butterflies complete their last molt. Adults do not change their habitat and lead a sedentary lifestyle. Flight occurs in May and June, it is possible that another generation will appear, and then podaliria can be observed from July to August. They overwinter as pupae.
Phylogeny
And the phylogeny of Papilionidae according to Nazari (2007) is given:[1][7]
| Phylogeny | |
| Baroniinae | |
| Zerinthiini | |
| Luehdorfiini | |
| Teinopalpini | |
| Troidini | |
It is now generally accepted that the subfamily Papilioninae is monophyletic.[1] Swallowtail butterflies in the nominate tribe Papilionini number about 225 species, and studies have been conducted on their host plants. coevolution and phylogeny. The old morphological classifications were also found to be valid in the sense that they formed clusters. Species belonging to groups using Rutaceae as host plants formed two groups, corresponding to the Old World and American taxa. Those that fed on Lauraceae and Magnoliaceae were found to form another cluster that included both Asian and American taxa.[9]
Parnassinae, like Papilioninae, was also considered monophyletic based on morphological studies, but recent studies based on both morphological and molecular characteristics indicate that this is not the case.[1] From Parnassian, clan Parnassus
and
Hypermnestra
have been shown to be very close based on molecular studies[10] and are now considered part of the Parnassiini tribe.[7]
The two taxa, Archon
and
Luehdorfia
, have been found to be closely related through nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis and, although they bear no morphological similarity, are now combined into the tribe Luehdorfiini.[7]
The subfamily Baroniinae has a single representative species. Baronia brevicornis
.
They are unique in the family to use Fabaceae (Leguminosae) as larval host plants. Baronninae and the extinct subfamily Praepapilioninae have many external similarities and are traditionally considered the most primitive subfamilies and sisters to the rest of the swallowtails. Recent research suggests that this may not be the case, since Baroniinae is closely related only to Parnassiinae, and Praepapilio
only to Papilionini, and neither taxa is sister to the rest of the swallowtails.[1]
Saturnia Madagascarensis
The Madagascar Saturnia or Comet is a butterfly whose image is immortalized on the 5,000 Malagasy francs banknote. In the world this giant is called the moon moth, which in no way detracts from its beauty and grandeur.
The wingspan of Saturnia reaches 16-18 cm, and at their end there are long tails, which develop beautifully in the field and increase the span to 20 cm. Unfortunately, they often and quite quickly fall off during the flight. The wings are colored yellow, and in the middle of each of them there is a brown eye, in the center of which there is a black dot.
The beauty from Madagascar lives only 2-3 days, and all because she has no mouth and gastrointestinal tract organs. Therefore, it is able to exist exactly as long as the nutrients accumulated by it during its life as a caterpillar are sufficient.
Distribution
As of 2005, 552 extant species have been identified and are distributed in tropical and temperate regions.[11] Various species live at altitudes ranging from sea level to high mountains, as is the case with most Parnassus
.
Most swallowtail species and greatest diversity are found in the tropics and subtropics between 20°N and 20°S latitudes,[5]: especially Southeast Asia and between 20°N and 40°N latitudes in East Asia. There are only 12 species found in Europe and only one species, Papilio Machaon
is found in the British Isles.[12]
North America is home to 40 species, including several tropical species and Parnassus
.[13]
The northernmost swallowtail is the Siberian Apollo ( Parnassius arcticus
), found above the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia, at an altitude of 1500 meters above sea level.[14]
in the Himalayas, various Apollo species, such as Parnassus epaphas
, have been found at 6000 meters above sea level.[15]:221
Screamers
Butterflies are silent insects; we associate them with peace and tranquility. But the Death's Head hawk moth makes a completely different impression on people. It always causes bewilderment and fear among those who have not encountered it in the wild before, because these butterflies make sharp, loud sounds reminiscent of a squeak.
These insects are the largest in Europe: their wingspan is up to 140 mm. If we add to this the fact that hawk moths are active at night, then one can imagine the horror this insect brings to a person passing by.
The death's head loves to feast on honey, so it often penetrates hives and eats honey directly from the honeycomb. She is not afraid of bees, since the fibers on her body reliably protect her from bites.
In addition to the unpleasant squeak, this insect has a frightening pattern on its back that looks like a human skull. This was the reason that superstitious people blamed the death's head for the beginning of mass epidemics. In some settlements they still believe that scales falling into the eye from its body can cause complete blindness in a person.
Food
Rare swallowtail butterfly ( Iphiclides podalirius
) on lavender flowers, near the Adriatic coast
The caterpillars of various species of swallowtail butterflies feed on a variety of different plants, most of which depend on only one of five families: Aristolochiaceae, Annonaceae, Lauraceae, Apiaceae and Rutaceae. By eating some of these toxic plants, the caterpillars sequester aristolochic acid which makes both the caterpillars and some of the butterflies toxic, thereby protecting them from predators.[16] Likewise, Parnassium smintheus
isolates sarmentosin from the host plant
Sedum lanceolatum
for protection against predators.[17] The swallowtail tribes Zerynthiini (Parnassiinae), Luehdorfiini (Parnassiinae) and Troidini (Papilioninae) almost exclusively use the family Aristolochiaceae as host plants.
For example, the primary host plant of the eastern black swallowtail in the wild is Queen Anne's Lace, but they also eat garden plants in the carrot family, including carrots, parsley, dill, and fennel.[18]
Adult swallowtails drink nectar, but also dirt and sometimes dung.[19]
Butterfly hawk moth: description
The hawk moth is considered a rather interesting and amazing insect, resembling hummingbirds in appearance. Different species of these insects are active at different times of the day: some fly during the day, others in the evening, after sunset, and others even at night. At the same time, you can see insects with very original body colors, so many owners cannot determine what kind of species it is.
Nature of life:
- Adults grow up to 11 cm in length and have a proboscis up to 10 cm in length. The wingspan of the butterfly is 65-120 mm.
- The insect is capable of flying at speeds of up to 50 km/h.
- The hawkmoth butterfly flies over flowers, hovers over them and feeds on the nectar of flowers.
- The complete development cycle of such an amazing creature consists of 4 stages: a caterpillar (larva) appears from the egg, which after a certain time turns into a pupa, and an adult flies out of the pupa and lays eggs. This lasts from 30 to 45 days, so over the summer 2 generations of these amazing creatures are born.
- Adults emerge at the end of June and perfectly complement the greenery with their outfits. They begin to fly around flowering trees and shrubs, such as apple, pear, lilac, chestnut, pollinating them.
- The larvae of the hummingbird butterfly are quite large and can reach a length of about 12.5 cm. At the same time, they are distinguished by the original, bright pattern of their body. Some species have a fantastic range of colors: green with a lemon tint, white with black and yellow spots, brownish-gray with “painted” eyes on the front of the body. As a rule, they look like creatures, as if from another planet.
- A characteristic feature of the hawk moth caterpillar is the presence of a horn at the end of the body. The color of the horn depends on the type of butterfly and may have original colors.
- Before turning into a butterfly, becoming a pupa, the caterpillar changes its color. Before becoming a pupa, the caterpillar has already accumulated the required amount of nutrients and hides in the ground. After 18 days, a rather beautiful hawkmoth butterfly emerges from the pupa. As soon as the wings dry, the butterfly takes flight to find a sexual partner and lay eggs to prolong its kind.
Additional factors:
- If you take a hawk moth caterpillar, it does not cause disgust and behaves quite calmly or moves slowly. Many people are afraid of caterpillars, but this caterpillar does not bite and cannot harm humans.
- The caterpillars feed on young leaves. The wine hawk moth prefers to settle on the grapevine. The caterpillar is large in size and has a very warlike coloring, with a spike at the end. The caterpillar has a rather unusual appearance, so many owners do not try to destroy it, constantly watching it. After some time, I manage to see a beautiful butterfly.
- The tongue hawk moth is similar in appearance to a small bird. It can often be seen in the garden, and children who have seen this creature say that they saw a small, unusual bird in the flower garden.
- The death's head hawk moth is distinguished by the fact that it has a pattern on its chest similar to a skull or a design that was found on pirate flags. This is one of the largest butterflies of the hawkmoth species. It feeds on both the sap of young trees and honey. This butterfly can easily climb right into the hive, making sounds like a young queen makes sounds. Therefore, she calmly steals honey from the bees. They do not touch her, as they mistake her for one of their relatives.
- Bedstraw hawk moth is more common in the middle zone. It has a long proboscis and a dense body. At the same time, the body color is a combination of brown and beige, and orange splashes are visible on the tips of the wings.
These insects are also called sphinxes. This is due to the fact that the disturbed caterpillar raises the front part of its body and freezes in a sphinx pose.
There are several types of hawk moths:
- Euphorbia.
- Wine.
- Pine.
- Dead Head.
- Ocellated.
- Oleander.
- Convolvulus.
- Lilac.
- Proboscis Hawkmoth and many others.
Life cycle
Detailed descriptions of the morphological characteristics of Papilionidae quoted in Bingham (1905) are as follows:[20]:1,2
Egg
. "Dome-shaped, smooth or low-angled, not as tall as broad, somewhat leathery, opaque." (Doherty.)
Larva
. Thick, smooth or with a row of fleshy tubercles on the back; sometimes with a raised fleshy projection (called a hood or ridge) on the fourth segment. The second segment has a transverse opening from which the larva protrudes at will and a straight, bifurcated, glandular-fleshy organ that emits a strong, penetrating and somewhat unpleasant odor.
Doll
.
Variable shape, but most often curved backwards. It is angular, with a truncated or rounded head, and the back of the abdomen is smooth or tuberous. It is attached by the tail, usually in a perpendicular position, and further secured by a silk girth around the middle. In Parnassus,
the pupa is placed in a loose silk web between the leaves.Imago
.
Wings of unusually varied shapes. The hind wing very often has a tail, which can be thin or wide and spade-shaped, but it is always a continuation of the theremin in vein 4. In one of the genera Armandia
, the theremin of the hind wings continues into tails at the tops of veins 2 and 3, as well as on vein 4 Fore wing (except for the aberrant genera
Parnassus
and
Hypermnestra
) with all 12 veins and, in addition, a short internal vein, vein 1 a, [21] which invariably ends on the dorsal margin.
Stages of development of the papilionid, giant swallowtail ( Papilio cresphontes
)
- Egg
- Larva
- Doll
- Imago
Kinds
Podalirium is a butterfly that has several varieties found in different parts of the world:
| Subspecies | Its features |
| Iphiclidens podalirius inalpina | Lives in the Alps. Features: shortened wings with a tail, wide wedge-shaped black stripes. |
| Iphiclidens podalirius eisthamelii | Lives in Spain and Portugal. Features: The front fenders are decorated with 7 vertical stripes. The underside of the wings is yellow. |
| ab. Undecimpineatus | Features: The front fenders are decorated with 6 black stripes. |
Distinctive characteristics
Key characteristics that distinguish Papilionidae from other butterfly families:[1]
- The osmeterium
is a bifurcated fleshy unfolding organ found in the prothoracic region of caterpillars. - Venation - in swallowtails, the second anal vein 2A reaches the edge of the wing and does not connect with the first anal vein 1A. In other families of butterflies these veins merge, and 2A does not reach the edge of the wing.
- The sclerites from the cervix (the webbed neck between the head and thorax) fuse under the neck, where the muscles for moving the head are attached.
- The Old World swallowtail caterpillar turns out the osmeterium in defense.
- Papilio demodocus
the larva applies one horn of the protruding osmeterium to the striking finger.
- Adult front wing Graphium agetes
. The second anal vein 2A reaches the edge of the wing and does not connect with the first anal vein 1A.
- Papilionid pupae are usually attached to the substrate using a cremaster and a raised silk girdle.
Nutrition
The butterfly stops reproducing as soon as it runs out of protein. She is forced to absorb liquid food - nectar. This is the main source of nutrients. This amazing creature helps pollinate plants. Pollen from one plant sticks to its legs and body and is transferred to another.
The podalirium caterpillar prefers to eat fruit trees:
- cherry;
- plum;
- apple tree;
- rowan;
- thorn;
- peach.
Caterpillars love to nibble on the edges of leaves. Feeding usually occurs in the morning and at night. During the day she sleeps.
A mature butterfly prefers flowers:
- hawthorn;
- honeysuckle;
- cornflower;
- broom;
- rose flowers;
- curly
Special devices and protection
The practice of swallowtail butterflies is Batesian mimicry, a behavior in which the butterflies look very similar to a nuisance species that prevents predators from attacking them. The swallowtail is different from many animals that practice mimicry. Swallowtail tiger butterfly ( Papilio glaucus
), exhibits of female limited polymorphism for Batesian mimicry and others such as the Canadian tiger swallowtail (
Papilio canadensis
) do not display any form of mimicry.[22]
Predators include the red-winged blackbird, Pennsylvania firefly, five-lined skink, green darner, goldenrod spider, Chinese mantis, flame seeker, and striped skunk.[18]
Biological basis of polymorphism in mimicry
Not all individuals of some species are identical in appearance. For example, Papilio glaucus
(eastern swallowtail), the Y-link determines whether the females are wild type (yellow and black) or melanic (dark melanin replacing the yellow background).[23]
This genetic difference stems from the fact that melanism is controlled by a single gene, which controls dopamine levels in the body. The ALS enzyme, which helps dopamine produce the yellow pigmentation commonly found in wings, is suppressed. Without pigmentation, the butterfly appears mostly black (melanic form) and is a Batesian imitation of Buttus Philenor
Swallowtail.
It is also Papilio glaucus
which are not completely black; some have an intermediate "sooty" color and are temperature sensitive.[22]
The different polymorphisms (wild type, melanic, and sooty intermediate) depend on the geographic distribution and abundance of its mimetic, Buttus Philenor
, whose wing color varies depending on geographic location.[22]
To successfully confuse B. fillenor
with predators,
Papilio glaucus's
wing background color matches the color of
B. fillenor
living in the same area.
Research supports this theory; in the southeastern United States, the relative abundance of melanistic females is geographically correlated with B. fillenor
.
Mimicry
The practice of only some subsets of swallowtails is mimicry. Species differ in whether one or both sexes are mimetic, and whether the mimicry is monomorphic or polymorphic. A phenomenon that has received particular attention is female-limited polymorphism, in which only the females of one species are mimetic and polymorphic, often mimicking different, distantly related aposematic butterflies. This polymorphism is seen in Papilio Dardanus
, an African swallowtail butterfly whose females have three different morphs for their wing color patterns: a black and white pattern for Batesian mimicry, a black and yellow pattern reminiscent of the males of the species, and an orange-spotted pattern reminiscent of the older males of the species.[24 ] Given that males of this species, lacking Batesian mimicry, are much more likely to be preyed upon by predators than females, a persistent question is why females exhibit a nonmimetic wing pattern that appears to reduce their fitness compared to the mimicry form. The swallowtail also demonstrates Batesian mimicry.
Several Hypotheses Two noteworthy hypotheses have been put forward for this phenomenon: the pseudosexual selection hypothesis and the male avoidance hypothesis. According to the pseudosexual hypothesis, male butterflies aggressively approached the male
— looked at women and then turned their behavior sexual when they were close enough to identify them as women.[25] According to the male avoidance hypothesis, female butterflies camouflage themselves in an attempt to avoid male harassment, as courtship can be harmful, time-consuming, and attract predators.[26]
One study recorded male responses to females of each morph and found that males consistently preferred Bates mimics, then black and yellow, then orange spotted morphs.[24] The scientists concluded that frequency-dependent selection did result in equal success for all three alternative strategies: Bates females suffered the least amount of predation but had their fitness decline the most due to sexual harassment, while the other two faced more low sexual harassment, but also lost fitness from attacks by predators.
PINE WALKING SILKWORTH
Pine silkworm (Thaumetopoea pinivora)
- earned its name thanks to its love for collective travel, and it also loves pine needles, which it feeds on! In June, the silkworm moves mainly along pine branches and needles, huddling in groups when it gets colder, but towards the end of July - beginning of August it goes on a journey. Lined up with their relatives in long rows, literally marching along the earth, asphalt and other surfaces to get to a suitable, sandy place. After which they pupate by burying themselves in the sand.
Looking at the lifestyle of the traveling pine silkworm, it becomes clear that it can most likely be found among young pines, with less sandy soil. As the caterpillars grow older, they become more dangerous, and the caterpillars' outfit also changes. The hairs from the small fluff develop into a lush outfit, which, however, a completely mature caterpillar grinds, as it were, into special depressions in the body. As a result, dust from hairs is formed, causing itching and burning when it comes into contact with the skin and mucous membranes of a person! It’s not like touching here, it’s not recommended to be near such caterpillars!!! An allergic reaction from flying hairs invisible to the eye can manifest differently in different people! Usually, inflammatory processes are observed in the attacked areas of the skin; it becomes covered with red blisters that itch irresistibly! When it comes into contact with the face, the picture is most often accompanied by swelling, and the eyes may become swollen and closed. The inflammatory processes themselves can last for several weeks! If you are unlucky enough to develop an allergic reaction, you should consult a doctor immediately!
Pine silkworm caterpillar
Mating and young
After mating, male Parnasin
produce an adhesive substance that is used to cover the female genitalia and prevent other males from mating.[27] They lay individual eggs on the undersides of the leaves of their food plants.[19] After the eggs are laid, parental investment is not accepted.
The pupae are usually attached to the substrate by a cremaster but with a raised head in a silk belt. Apollos, however, pupate in debris on the ground and also build a loose cocoon. In temperate regions, winters are spent in a puppet diapause scene.
In culture
Because swallowtail butterflies are large, colorful, and attractive, they have become a target for butterflies. collectors. The largest of these, birdwing butterflies are especially popular and are raised on butterfly farms to supply collectors.
Many members of the family, as larvae, feed on plants of the citrus family, Rutaceae. Making some of these beautiful butterfly pests in citrus orchards.
The Oregon swallowtail is the state insect of Oregon. The Eastern tiger swallowtail is the state insect of Virginia and the state butterfly of Georgia, Delaware, and South Carolina. The black swallowtail is the state butterfly of Oklahoma.
Characteristics
A characteristic feature of the individual is that they almost never feed on the nectar of flowering plants. Their diet usually consists of overripe fruits.
It is the aroma of fermentation that attracts the attention of these insects. They can cluster around a tree in a large flock that is releasing fermented sap.
Most often, such liquid appears on damaged trunks.
It is worth noting that such butterflies were noticed when they feasted on birch sap. The surprising thing is that while eating fermented juice, insects completely lose their vigilance. They can sit on field weeds or flowers. In addition, such butterflies make up for the lack of microelements in their bodies from rotting remains and animal excrement. Such individuals simply need a huge amount of moisture. In other conditions, far from bodies of water, insects will not be able to survive. As mentioned earlier, birch sap is a real delicacy for mourners. As for caterpillars, in most cases they prefer food plants. Therefore, their diet is extensive. Caterpillars actively devour linden, alder, maple, hawthorn, rosehip, nettle, poplar and willow.
Recommendations
- ^ a b c d f f gram
Reed, Robert D.;
Sperling, Felix A.H. (2006). " Papilionidae
- Swallowtail butterflies." [Web project “Tree of Life”]. Retrieved November 7, 2010. - Richards, O.W.; Davis, R. (1977). Imms General Textbook of Entomology: Volume 1: Structure, Physiology and Development Volume 2: Classification and Biology
. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 0-412-61390-5. - Salmon, Michael A., Marren, Peter, Harley, Basil. Aurelian's Legacy: British Butterflies and Their Collectors. p. 252. Publisher: University of California Press. 2001 ISBN 978-0-520-22963-1
- Lehnert, Matthew S.; Kramer, Valerie R.; Rawlins, John E.; Verdecia, Vanessa; Daniels, Jaret K. (July 10, 2022). "The Critically Endangered Butterfly of Jamaica: A Review of the Biology and Conservation Status of the Homerus Swallowtail (Papilio (Pterourus) homerus Fabricius)." Insects
.
8
(3): 68. doi:10.3390/insects8030068. PMC 5620688. PMID 28698508. - ^ a b c
Collins, N. Mark;
Morris, Michael G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World: The IUCN Red List
. Iron and Cambridge: IUCN. ISBN 978-2-88032-603-6 - via Biodiversity Heritage Library. - Nazari, Vazrik (2006). " Parnassus
Latreille 1804". [Web project “Tree of Life”]. Retrieved November 7, 2010. - ^ a b c d f
Nazari, Vazrik;
Sperling, Felix A.H. (2006). "Parnassiinae Duponchel, [1835]". The tree of Life
. [Web project “Tree of Life”]. Retrieved November 7, 2010. - Durden, C.J.; Rose, H. and Rothschild, Miriam (1978). "Butterflies from the Middle Eocene: Earliest Appearance of Fossil Papilionidae (Lepidoptera)". Pearce-Sellards Ser.
Tex. Mem. Mus .
29
(5): 1–25.. - Ober, J.; Legal, L; Descimon, H.; Michel F. (1999). "Molecular phylogeny of swallowtail butterflies of the tribe Papilionini (Papilionidae, Lepidoptera)". Molecular phylogenetics and evolution
.
12
(2): 156–167. Doi:10.1006/mpev.1998.0605. PMID 10381318.. - Katoh, T.; Chichvarkhin, A.; Yagi, T.; Omoto, K. (2005). “Phylogeny and evolution of butterflies of the genus. Parnassus
: Insights from mitochondrial 16S and ND1 sequences" (PDF).
Zoological Science
.
22
(3): 343–351. doi:10.2108/zsj.22.343. HDL:2115/14485. PMID 15795497. S2CID 23898737.. - Häuser, Christoph L.; de Jong, Rienk; Lamas, Gerardo; Robbins, Robert K.; Smith, Campbell; Vane-Wright, Richard I. (July 28, 2005). "Papilionidae - Revised GloBIS/GART Species Checklist (2nd Draft)". Retrieved November 8, 2010.
- Coombs, Simon (30 September 2010). "Checklist of European butterflies". butterfly-guide.co.uk. Retrieved November 11, 2010.
- Brock, Jim P.; Kaufman, Kenn (2003). Butterflies of North America
. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-15312-8. - Stumpe, Felix. "Parnassius arctica Eisner, 1968." Russian-Insects.com
. Retrieved November 9, 2010. - Money, M. S. (1968). Ecology and biogeography of high-altitude insects
. Volume 4 of the entomologica series. Springer. p. 530. ISBN 978-90-6193-114-0. Retrieved November 9, 2010. - von Euw, J.; Reichstein, T., & Rothschild, M. (1968). "Aristolochic acid in the swallowtail butterfly Pachlioptera aristolochiae". Isr.
J. Chem .
6
: 659–670. Doi:10.1002/ijch.196800084.. - Doyle, Amanda. "The role of temperature and host plant interactions in larval development and population ecology of Parnassius smintheus Doubleday, the Rocky Mountain Apollo butterfly" (PDF). University of Alberta. Retrieved November 13, 2022.
- ^ a b
Moran, Mark. "Eastern Black Swallowtail". Retrieved October 19, 2013. - ^ a b
“Swallowtail butterflies.” University of Michigan. Retrieved October 19, 2013. - Bingham, K. T. (1905). The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma: Butterflies Volume
I. London: Taylor and Francis. item 519. Retrieved November 7, 2010. - Since then, the vein has been called 2A or the second anal vein in modern venation systems.
- ^ a b c
Scribe, Mark;
Hagen, Robert; Lederhaus, Robert (February 1996). "Genetics of mimicry in tiger swallowtail butterflies, Papilio glaucus and P. canadensis (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)". Evolution
.
50
(1): 222. doi:10.2307/2410795. JSTOR 2410795. PMID 28568864. - Koch, Bernhardt; Behnecke, Bettina; ffrench-Constant, Richard H. (May 2000). "Molecular basis of melanism and mimicry in the swallowtail butterfly." Current Biology
.
10
(10): 591–4. Doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00494-2. PMID 10837223. S2CID 21556770. - ^ a b
Cook, S. E.;
Jennifer J. Vernon; Melissa Bateson; Tim Guilford (1994). "Mate choice in the polymorphic African swallowtail butterfly, Papilio dardanus: Males can avoid sexual advances" (PDF). Animal behavior
.
47
(2):389–397. Doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1053. S2CID 53186308. Received September 15, 2013. - Vane-Wright, R.; K.R. Smith (1991). "Phylogenetic relationships of three African swallowtail butterflies, Papilio dardanus, P. phorcas and P. constantinus: a cladistic analysis (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)". Systematic entomology
.
Biology of butterflies. 16
(3):275–291. Doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.1991.tb00689.x. - Conrad, K.F.; J. Pritchard (1989). "Female dimorphism and physiological color variation in the dragonfly Argia vivida Hagen Odonata: Coenagrionidae". Canadian Journal of Zoology
.
67
(2):298–304. Doi:10.1139/z89-044. - Ramel, Alain. "Les Papilionides, une famille en beauté." Les Insectes - Petit Cours illustré d'entomologie (Insects - A short illustrated course in entomology)
. Retrieved November 8, 2010. English translation.
further reading
- Chattopadhyay, J. (2007). Swallowtail butterflies, biology and ecology of some species in India.
Desh Prashan, Kolkata, India. — 134 p. ISBN 978-81-905719-1-3. - Glassberg, J. (2001). Butterflies through binoculars.
West. - Guppy, K. S., Shepard, J. H. (2001). Butterflies of British Columbia.
- Igarashi, S. (1979). Papilionidae
and their early stages [in Japanese]. 2 vols. - Tokyo, Kodansha, 218 pp., 357 pp. - James, D. & Nunnallee, D. (2011). Life stories of cascade butterflies.
- Korolev V.A. (2014). Catalogs for the Lepidoptera
.
Part II. Papilionidae
. — Moscow, 387 pp., 20 color inserts, ISBN 978-5-00077-163-1 [1] - Pelham, J. (2008). Catalog of butterflies of the USA and Canada.
- Pyle, R. (2002). Butterflies of Cascadia.
- Rothschild, L. (1895). Revision of the Papilios of the Eastern Hemisphere, excluding Africa. Novitates Zoologicae
2(3):167–463 and plates pdf - Rothschild, W. and Jordan, C. (1906). American Papilios revisited. Novitates Zoologicae
13:411–752. online (and pdf) (facsimile edition, ed. P.H. Arnault, 1967). - Seitz, A. (1907). 1. Gattung Papilio, Schwalbenschwänze.
In: Seitz, A. (ed.).
Die Groß-Schmetterlinger der Erde.
J.Abteilung (Die Großschmetterlinge des Palaeakrtischen Faunengebietes). 1. Group: Tagfalter. pp. 8–15. F. Lehmann, Stuttgart. - Talbot, G. (1939). Fauna of British India.
Butterflies. Volume 1. Papilionidae and Pieridae. Taylor and Francis, London; xxix, 600 pp., 3 tables, 1 map. - Tuzov V., Bogdanov P., Devyatkin A., Kaabak L., Korolev V., Murzin V., Samodurov G., Tarasov E. (1997). Guide to butterflies of Russia and adjacent territories (Lepidoptera, Ropalocera).
Vol. 1. Sofia-Moscow: Pensoft-Press, 480 pp., 79 colors. dishes. - Warren A.D., Davis K.J., Grishin N.V., Pelham J.P., Stangeland E.M. (2012). Interactive list of American butterflies. [2]
Variability
The species is characterized by strong geographic and population variability. The distribution of wing spots varies in many habitats of the species, and its weak migratory ability and widely separated populations contribute to the consolidation and maintenance of population differences. As a result, more than 600 forms of this species have already been described. The intraspecific taxonomy of Apollo is controversial among entomologists and comes down to two approaches:
- the first is to give each major population the status of a subspecies;
- the second is the complete denial of subspecies by reducing them to infrasubspecific forms.
6.1. Subspecies
democratus lives in the European part of Russia and the Middle Urals
(Krulikowsky, 1906).
In the forest-steppe of Western Siberia, you can find representatives of the subspecies meinhardi
(Sheljuzhko, 1924) - very large, with large black and red spots on the milky white background of the wings in males, and in a coating of black scales - in females.
carpathicus
occurs in the Carpathians (Rebel et Rogenhofer, 1892).
In the foothills of the Middle and Southern Urals - limicola
(Stichel, 1906), individuals of which are also very large, and the wings of females have a yellowish tint.
ciscaucasicus
(Sheljuzhko, 1924)
is widespread in the Greater Caucasus The subspecies breitfussi
(Bryk, 1914) is known from several specimens from
Crimea
.
In Altai, the subspecies alpherakyi
(Krulikowsky, 1906) is distinguished.
In the Sayan Mountains and Cisbaikalia, the subspecies sibiricus
(Nordmann, 1851) is found, and in the eastern part of Siberia, the Baikal region and Mongolia -
hesebolus
(Nordmann, 1851), with snow-white wings with small black and red spots.
merzbacheri
lives in Kyrgyzstan . Several subspecies of Apollo have been identified in the Pyrenees and the Alps.
